Human Development and memory Essay
Undoubtedly, in the process of human development and growth memory also has a complicated path of development. Of particular interest is the development of this function in early childhood when a child is forced to memorize a huge number of events and impressions that he faces with. Every human feeling, impression or movement has a certain impact and trace that can be saved for quite a long time, and under appropriate conditions to appear again and become the subject of consciousness. Therefore, under the memory is understood “imprint”, storage, subsequent recognition and playback of “tracks” from past experience that allow people to store information without losing the old knowledge and skills.
Memory is a complex mental process, consisting of several partial processes associated with each other. Memory is very important for humans: it allows to collect, store and subsequently use their personal experience. All the knowledge and skills are related to the work of memory. Accordingly, before psychological there is a number of complex issues on the study of memory processes: it aims to study how events are saved in human mind, what are the physiological mechanisms of this process, what conditions contributed to this, what techniques may allow to extend the amount of saved material, etc.
The research and study of memory aims to answer the questions of how long memories can be stored, what are the mechanisms to save memories for short and long periods of time, mechanisms of subsequent recognition and playback of stored material. It is also very important to understand the factors of memory development, memory abilities of people and how it is connected with the whole cognitive processes of man.
The subject of study in this paper is the development of memory, the factors of memory in different age periods of people. The purpose of the work is to analyze the factors of memory in different age periods and consider the following questions:
1) examine the concept of memory;
2) to examine individual characteristics of memory and its development;
3) analyze the factors of memory in different age periods of human life;
4) study the research of psychologists on this topic.
Memory, its structure, functions and significance
Under the memory is understood the ability of human mind to receive, record, store and play back the previous stimuli, which appear in the process of human life and education, and which leave “traces” of learning called memories. (Tulving, 2005)
The size of memory, duration and reliability of data storage, as well as the ability to accept complex signals, develops in the process of evolution with increase in the number of nerve cells in the brain ( neurons) and complexity of their structure. The memory of central nervous system is characterized by the storage of information about past events of the outside world, which is used by the body to build the model of the current or future behavior. This “record” of information, that is stored in the central nervous system, is called engram. The nature of engrams is unknown, there are only hypotheses based on conflicting data. Apparently, the information indentation goes due to changes in the electrical properties of neurons and synaptic membrane with subsequent inclusion of enzyme systems and change of intraneuronal metabolism. (Nelson, 1995)
It is also important to say about such brain function as the selectivity, that is the human brain selects, sorts and stores only the most important, general information, that makes human memory is selective. This selectivity, as well as the property of forgetting, does not allow the brain to be “overloaded” with continuous flow of incoming signals, avoiding the sort of “information catastrophe”. This implies that information stored in the brain may not exceed 1% of the total flow of information. (Tulving, 2005)
Then it should be said about that memory processes in humans go differently. Scientists distinguish two main groups of individual differences in memory: the first group includes differences in the efficiency of learning, and the second group includes different types of memory. Differences in the productivity of learning are expressed in the speed, strength and accuracy of memory, as well as ability to reproduction of the material. Another group of individual differences is connected with the types of memory: memory type determines how a person learns material – visually, aurally or by using the motion (visual, auditory and motor memory, respectively). Net memory types are rare, most people have mixed types. (Tulving, 2005)
Development of human memory in different age periods
An important part of research of memory is study of the process of its development with age. That is, in different periods of life human memory works differently. This is an important property that has been studied by many psychologists and scientists (Rose et al., 2005; Yamamoto et al., 2009; Schneider et al., 2004).
Initially, human memory in babies has involuntary nature. From various memory activities in babies first of all develops function of recognition, that is associated with a repeated perception of the impressions that child learns while repeatedly perceive things, people, environment. Further development of this feature comes from two directions: first, the recognition of faces becomes possible through greater interval of time, and secondly, gradually increases the range of subjects which a child learns. Further development of memory goes along with the development of the child in the process of cognition of the world and gaining knowledge. From the second year in children is observed not only the ability of recognition, but also the ability to play without re-presenting a familiar object or its name. Memory of the child develops rapidly while getting new knowledge and learning new forms of activity, when adults teach the child to perform certain actions (to dress and undress, wash hands, etc.), that requires memorization. (Rose et al., 2005)
Thus, in pre-primary and pre-school age development of memory goes in processes of play and education, and it is important to note that children better remember things that cause interest in them. A child of pre-school age can play in rather complex game, memorizing and performing all the requirements of the game. Children by this age already have a lot of memories, and above all imaginative ideas, which they can operate. In this age children are able to observe and keep in mind the surroundings, but learning in the preschool age comes mainly automatically, and not due to special process of memorization. This is due to a lack of ability to comprehension of the material, small amount of knowledge, lack of experience and familiarity with the methods of memorization. At an early age children usually do not aim to remember information, so learning and memorizing are predominantly involuntary in nature. (Yamamoto et al., 2009; Foreman et al., 1990)
Later, the rapid development of the characteristics of memory occurs in the school years, which is connected with the learning process. Significant changes in the development of memory of the child occurs at school. Among these changes are, above all, increase in speed of learning and the amount of memory (that is number of items that should be remembered after a single perception). Another important change is the transition from involuntary memorization to arbitrary memorization. Classes at school force children to memorize information purposefully, and the child uses arbitrary memorization. Schooling requires exactly this kind of memory and, in turn, further develops it. (Schneider et al., 2004)
Education also requires conscious recollection of information, so children gradually develop their logical semantic memory, which dominates in the high school age. However, at the age of 13-14 and even later the quality of recollection in children is worse than in adults. It is known that while dictation of long phrases children are not able to memorize the material without repetition. Experiments with the memorizing of the elementary material show that the capacity for memorization in children of all ages is less than in adults. Usually, children need more repetition and more time for error-free playback. However, children are able to keep in mind the memorized information for longer time, as together with a weaker ability to remember children have higher strength of memory of learned material. (Schneider et al., 2004)
Speaking about memory, scientists have no common opinion about the age when memory function is the highest. Psychologists express different views on this issue: some believe that the highest results have people at the beginning of puberty, others believe that the development of the ability of memory takes place till 25 years. Studies show that memory improves with age up to 20-25 years, and then stays at the same level up to 40-45 years, after that gradually begins to decrease. (Neisser 2003; Schneider W. 2008)
That is, the main is opinion about the maximum development of memory before the age of 25, which follows a period of stabilization. Researchers believe that the maximum development of all mental abilities is observed in people under the age of 50 years, so the memory in this period is stronger. (Schneider W. 2008)
The most complete development of memory coincides with the most active and creative period in human life, when there is a considerable store of knowledge, which creates more opportunities for different kinds of associations, primarily logical-semantic. Among factors of memory activity scientists point active participation, interests in a particular occupation, area of knowledge, art, music, to quite aware of the challenges. All this supports the emotional stress, which undoubtedly is a favorable base for the most complete manifestation of memory functions in adults. Also scientists stress that with age memory development does not happen by itself, but this requires a whole system of memory training. To the development of good memory abilities contribute rationalization of mental and practical work of people: planning, self-control, the use of reasonable methods of memorization, the connection of mental work with the practical, critical attitude to their work, the ability to abandon the inefficient methods of work and go to the effective methods. That is, scientists argue that the more complex is mental work of a person, the more complicated task for the brain and memory, the better trained is his memory and more information a person can remember. Scientists argue that, together with certain given abilities of memory of certain person, its operation depends on the activities aimed to train memory. Scientists in recent years conduct a lot of research and experimentations exploring effectiveness of memory training in adults. In most cases experiments showed good results in the memory of people who are constantly training their memory throughout life. (Langbaum et al., 2009; McDougall et al., 2010)
Though scientists stress the fact that some individual differences in memory are closely connected with the special mechanisms that protect the brain from unnecessary information. The degree of activity of these mechanisms varies in different people.
In the old age starts a process of weakening of memory, and develops a senile feature of memory to forget current events. In some cases, due to gross changes in the vessels of the brain weakens emotional memory, and finally the memory of habits. In old age changes the structure of memory: weakens its mechanical component, then reproduction, and sensory memory. It goes due to presence of disadvantage of the morphological nature – a reduction in the number of neurons. It is estimated that the human brain after 35-40 years daily loses a hundred thousand neurons. It leads to decrease in the neural basis of memory, although the specified loss is not essential for the brain containing billions of cells.
However, there are many exceptions, especially in old people, when an excellent memory is preserved to old age.
History of study and research of memory by psychologists
The study of memory was one of the first sections of psychological science,
in which was applied experimental method. In the 80’s of XIX century a German
psychologist G. Ebbinghaus proposed method by which it was possible to study the laws of “pure” memory, independent from thinking activity. This reception was memorizing of nonsense syllables. As a result, scientist identified a number of features and mechanisms of association: he found that a relatively simple, but impressive events may be remembered firmly and permanently. At the same time, more complex things a person can experience dozens of times, which do not stay long in memory. G. Ebbinghaus also found that in case of
close attention to the event one experience is enough to further accurately reproduce it. (Dewsbury, 2006)
One of the most important achievements was the discovery by Ebbinghaus of the law of forgetting. This law was deduced on the basis of experiments with three-letter nonsense syllables. During the experiments it was found that after the first repetitions of a series of syllables person forgets them very quickly: during the first hour is forgotten about 60% of received information, and after six days less than 20% of the total number of learned syllables stay in the memory.
It should be noted the contribution of representatives of psychoanalysis in the study of human memory. They identified the role of emotions, motivations and needs in remembering and forgetting. For example, they found that the most easily reproduced in our memory are the events that have a positive emotional nature, and conversely, negative events are quickly forgotten. Interesting are the views on the nature of memory, its properties and processes of an Austrian doctor and psychologist, founder of psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud. He examined and analyzed the problems of memory on his extensive empirical material taken from everyday life. These observations he put in his “Psychopathology of Everyday Life” (1904). According to Freud forgetting is a spontaneous process that can be considered as passing for some time. On the basis of his data he cites many examples of different types of forgetting – a forgetting of impressions, intentions and knowledge. (Kihlstrom 2006)
Interesting and worthy mentioning in the work are the ideas of the American psychologist William James, one of the founders of pragmatism. In his “Psychology” (1905), he devoted considerable place to memory. By memory W. James understands knowledge about the past state of mind, that is memory is knowledge about the event or fact, of which the person is not currently thinking and that he perceives as a phenomenon of the past. Analyzing the processes of memory, which William James called the phenomenon of memory, he noted its associative nature. Not lost relevance in our time views of William James on the development of human memory. (Kihlstrom 2006)
In this work, of course, it is impossible to analyze the views of all scientists on the problem of memory, but those views that are presented can help to show the history of the study and views at its main characteristics, the functioning of its key processes. Despite the fact that the study of memory, many issues remain unresolved, psychology now has extensive material on the problem. Today there are many approaches to studying memory processes, which propose diverse and contradictive facts, because there are theories studying memory
from psychological, physiological, neural and biochemical perspectives.
