Research Paper on Ballistics and Firearms

Research Paper on Ballistics and Firearms

Abstract

This paper provides a discussion of the specific crime scene investigation topic, namely ballistics and firearms. The major goal is to explain the significance of this topic in crime investigation as the proposed options of crime-solving techniques. Due attention is paid to the issues like the major units of ballistics, the major types of ballistics evidence, the major factors that are considered by ballistics experts while making an investigation of firearms used by the shooter at the scene of the crime, firearms examination, some facts from the history of firearms, and the overview of firearms. In general, the paper highlights the significant role of ballistics and firearms in crime scene investigation. By sharing ballistics and firearms intelligence across the United States, it is possible to make law enforcement resources more efficient.

Introduction

            Ballistics and firearms are known as two of the multiple aspects of crime scene investigation. It is crucial for any forensic scientist or crime scene investigator to have a good understanding of the significance of presenting ballistics and firearms evidence in a court of law.  This knowledge is useful in providing assistance to crime scene investigators to avoid erroneous conclusions in various types of criminal cases. It is not a secret that firearms are extensively used as a “weapon of offense for a variety of purposes ranging from petty crime to gang/militant warfare” (Sinha, 2013, p.1). Besides, firearms can be viewed as an effective device for antisocial activities such as military events, political riots, public demonstrations, strikes, etc. In order to help crime scene investigators in identifying crime scene reconstruction, ballistics experts provide testing of firing the same type of ammunition from firearms of different lengths. This testing allows obtaining valuable information regarding the distances between the victim and the muzzle of the firearm. According to researchers on ballistics techniques, “recovered crime guns can also be test-fired and the resulting bullets and casings from one crime scene can be compared with ballistics evidence at another crime scene to determine whether the crimes were linked to the same gun” (Braga & Pierce, 2004, p. 1). As a rule, the ballistic data is sent to the federal ballistics database known as the NIBIN Networks or the National Integrated Ballistic Information Network. The National Integrates Ballistic Information Network is a national system of ballistic imagining specially developed to assist in firearms examination through the provision of computerized images of bullets and cartridge cases (ATF, Official Website, 2017).  ATF bears responsibility for the functioning of this system at the national level. Due to the comparison of bullets and cartridges, it is possible to draw conclusions in the crime scene investigation process.  If the firearms had been used in any other crime, this information will be provided by NIBIN Network staff. Currently, “crimes are solved by law enforcement following up on intelligence information from ballistic imaging technology” (ATF, Official Website, 2017). In other words, the NIBIN Network helps to resolve serious crimes by providing evidence that can be in a court of law. By sharing ballistics intelligence across the United States, it is possible to make law enforcement resources more efficient.

The Significance of Ballistics and Firearms in Crime Scene Investigation

            In criminal trials, due attention is paid to firearms identification evidence that requires thorough examination and analysis of the case in order to draw relevant conclusions. Any type of ballistics and firearms evidence should be carefully examined. The process of firearms identification depends on the use of the general experience and knowledge of firearms identification examiners, without the use of statistical data (Sinha, 2013). The growth of technological innovations requires the interpretation of the obtained data within forensic practices.  In fact, ballistics experts working in forensic science labs have an opportunity to provide accurate and comprehensive investigations of firearms-related crimes (Sinha, 2013).

            In addition, ballistics and firearms identification plays an important role in completing crime scene investigation. Ballistics is interpreted as the study of projectiles in motion, while firearms identification refers to the identification of firearms through analysis and exploration of the fired bullets and cartridges (Sinham, 2013). For a crime scene investigator, it is crucial to have accurate and comprehensive data on firearms identification and ballistics evidence (Sinha, 2013). The NIBIN Network is the key tool in ballistics and firearms exploration is comprised of several computerized networks, including

  1. the regional server that provides storage of all images to ensure execution of requests on the fired bullet and cartridge cases.
  2. Digital Acquisition System remotes that provide image acquisition and evaluation
  3. Rapid Brass Identification that provides on-site digital capture of cartridge cases to be transmitted to IBIS or Integrated Ballistics Identification Systems
  4. Matchpoint provides analysis of bullets and cartridges through connection by LAN to DAS remote (Becker, 2005).

            Furthermore, the science of ballistics allows having a good understanding of the shooting skills of a person who fired a shot at the scene of the crime. The following skills of the shooter can be evaluated due to ballistic evidence investigation: eye-hand coordination, motor skills, visualization skills, self-control skills, concentration, self-esteem, and self-confidence.

            As a matter of fact, firearms examination differs from ballistics study. This difference is easy to determine, using the definitions of the terms ballistics and firearms examination. In the following section, the background information on ballistics will be presented.

Ballistics: Background Information

            Ballistics is defined as the area of Forensic Science that is related to the study of firearms, and their usage by criminals with the goal to commit severe crimes. The term ballistics is related to the scientific examination of the motion of projectiles (Latin ballista- a special military device used by soldiers in ancient times to kill their enemies) (Prior, 2004). It is very important to have a good understanding of the nature of weapons used by criminals through the proper analysis of the wound and the victim’s condition. In fact, the field of ballistics provides an opportunity to ensure the identification of rifling patterns, marks caused by the usage of suppressors (or silencers), shell casings, powder burn, and a large number of other areas pertaining to firearms and the evidence left by killers. As a rule,  ballistics experts can provide valuable information, such as the type of weapon used by a criminal, and analyze its sound when fired. Besides, ballistic experts can conduct special distance and depth tests, which involve specific activities like “firing rounds of ammunition into water, sand and other substances to determine how close a person would have to be to receive a life-threatening wound from a gun” (Claridge, 2016). Ballistics is considered to be an essential part of Forensic Science as it provides evidence that can be used in criminal proceedings. In most cases, the application of ballistics study allows finding the connection between different crimes committed over a long period of time for the reason that weapons are resold by criminals (Claridge, 2016).

            In fact, the field of ballistics is focused on using innovative technologies. For example, ballistics imaging technology is considered to be an effective “potent tool for moving the law enforcement response to violent gun criminals forward by linking multiple crime scenes to one firearm” (Braga & Pierce, 2004, p. 1). A recent study shows that ballistics imaging technology has a positive impact on the productivity of police departments.  Researchers used negative binomial regression models in order to provide analysis of times series data on ballistics matches. They found that “ballistics imaging technology was associated with a more than sixfold increase in the monthly number of ballistics matches made by the Boston Police Department’s Ballistics Unit” (Braga & Pierce, 2004, p. 1).

Ballistics imaging technology helps law enforcement agencies to achieve success in crime scene investigations that would not have been possible using traditional ballistics methods.

            All in all, ballistics is divided into several units, including internal, external, terminal, and transitional ballistics.

  • Internal ballistics can be defined as “a study of the properties and performance of the projectile while still moving through the barrel of the firearm” (Prior, 2004, p. 181). 
  • External ballistics stands for the study of the projectile movement, performance and attributes after exiting the muzzle of the barrel” (Prior, 2004, p. 181).
  • The term terminal ballistics is defined as the study of the effect of the projectile on hard surface contact (splat and ricochet), hard and soft surface penetration, and soft tissue wounds” (Prior, 2004, p. 181).
  • Transitional ballistics refers to the study of the transition from the motion of the projectile through the barrel of the firearm to its flight through space or the air.

            As a matter of fact, ballistics is considered to be the science of mechanics of the projectile’s behavior, including the nature of its flight and possible effects, starting from the time of firing a shot to the time of its effects on the target.

The major types of ballistics evidence located at the scene of the crime

There are several types of ballistics evidence that can be presented at the crime scene:

  1. the bullet or projectile
  2. the fired cartridge case
  3. FDR or Firearms Discharge Residue evidence
  4. bullet wipe found around wounds
  5. the pistol
  6. ammunition in the magazine (Prior, 2004).

The major factors that are considered by ballistics experts while making an investigation of firearms used by shooters at the scene of the crime

The major factors that should be taken into consideration by ballistics experts while conducting an investigation of firearms used by the shooter at the scene of crime include:

  1. evaluation of the gravitation effect
  2. evaluation of the muzzle velocity
  3. evaluation of the angle of elevation of the barrel
  4. evaluation of the sectional density of the barrel
  5. evaluation of the bullet shape (Heard, 2011)

Firearms examination: background information

            The major goal of firearms examination is to examine, analyze and compare the marks left by the firearms on the fired bullets and cartridge cases. It is required to use a microscope in order to carry out a comparison of these marks, making efforts in identifying the relationship of the elements to a special type of firearm. Firearms and Toolmark identification is a science aimed at identifying certain defects in firearms.

            The key tasks performed by firearms examiner include a number of activities aimed at achieving the established goals:

  1. to restore obliterated serial numbers on firearms
  2. to detect and characterize PGSR or primer gunshot residue
  3. to determine the distance through detecting GSR
  4. to ensure toolmark examination (Wecht & Rago, 2005).

            Besides, firearms function testing is based on the application of the proper strategies and knowledge of firearms operation. There are two major categories of firearms:

  • handguns that are specially developed to fire a shot using one hand (e.g. pistols and revolvers)
  • longarms that are specially developed to fire a shot from the shoulder (rifles and shotguns) (Wecht & Rago, 2005).

            It is known that modern firearms are developed to operate in a similar way. The following steps describe the operation of firearms:

  1. the trigger is pulled
  2. the firing pin is promptly forced against the primed area of the chambered cartridge by means of a hammer
  3. an internal spark is caused by the rapid compression of the primer
  4. it is directed toward the cartridge to ensure ignition of the powder
  5. the powder begins to burn
  6. burning of the powder leads to the build-up of gasses
  7. the cartridge case begins to expand against the walls of the chamber
  8. the bullet is forced to move down the barrel
  9. the cartridge case is forced in the reversed direction against the cartridge stop ( Wecht & Rago, 2005).

            In general, firearms examination involves is based on the following features: “the make, model, caliber, general rifling characteristics, barrel length, and trigger pull of submitted firearms” (Wecht & Rago, 2005, p. 344). It is required to perform a field test aimed at determining the function of firearms during actual firing. In addition, it is necessary to comply with the established rules while loading the firearms with live ammunition. A water tank is used to ensure that the bullet’s damage is minimal. In some cases, a box with cotton filler is used as an alternative. After conducting a test, a firearms examiner collects bullets and cartridge cases in order to examine them using a microscope. A comparison microscope is an important device used in firearms examination (Wecht & Rago, 2005). The major function of this device is to provide a side-by-side comparison of the fired bullets and cartridge cases. The device is specially designed to allow the firearms examiner to explore two objects simultaneously. According to experts, “ the dividing line between the two images can be moved back and forth to aid in a direct comparison of two different objects or can be eliminated for viewing one object at a time” ( Wecht & Rago, 2005, p. 344). If a firearms examiner identifies that the firearms evidence and test toolmarks are the same, he or she will assume that the firearm is the one tool excluding others that generate the evidence toolmark.

            Interestingly, firearms identification differs from ballistics identification, although both procedures play a crucial role in forensic science practices, namely in toolmark identification. There are three main challenges associated with firearms examination:

  1. wrong identification of a tool as the source of a toolmarks that it failed to generate
  2. the key features of  toolmarks consist of non-unique marks
  3. confusion in terms of subclass characteristics shared by more than one tool
  4.  the key features of the marks produced by some level of change over a long period of time (Wecht & Rago, 2005).

Some facts from the history of firearms

            One of the first firearms was a handgun presented in the form of “a small canoon of wrought iron and bronze fitted to a frame or stock with metal bands or leather thongs”  (Heard, 2011, p. 3). The barrel with powder, ball, and wad was used to load this hand cannon. Undoubtedly, the first firearms were clumsy to fire and take aim. Besides, wet weather and rain caused negative effects on the quality of powder making it difficult to ignite. The first use of a hand canoon refers to 1247-1311 (Spain).

            The invention of the matchlock provided an opportunity to fire weapons in one hand and improve an individual’s capacity to aim. The construction of the matchlock was the same as the construction of the hand canoon, but it had some additional elements “the match, a slow-burning piece of cord used to ignite the priming charge, which was held in a curved hook screwed to the side of the frame” (Heard, 2011, p. 3). The matchlocks were first used in England during 1509-1547 by Henry VII cavalry. The matchlock had its defect in construction and design, namely the use of a slow-burning match for ignition. Hence, it could not be used in wet weather conditions and in case of unexpected attacks (  Heard, 2011).

            Then, the wheel lock was invented to make certain improvements in the use of firearms. The lighted match was not used in the wheel lock. According to experts, “this important innovation in the field of firearms design made ambush possible as well as making the firearm a practical weapon for hunting” (Heard, 2011, p. 4). This type of firearm allowed firing from the shoulder, but its mechanism was complicated. It was comprised of a steel wheel that was mounted on one side of the device at the back of the barrel. The wheel lock was designed to allow an individual to carry it operational to fire a shot. This type of firearm was widely used in 16-th century Italy, Germany, France, and Belgium ( Heard, 2011).

            Besides, in the 1570s, the snaphaunce was invented to be used as an early form of the flintlock. The mechanism of this device was developed in a way that allowed the flint to be linked to the spring-loaded arm. Sparks were produced through the flint’s striking against the metal plate to achieve ignition of the powder. This type of firearm was used in Germany. The snaphaunce served as a cheap mechanism and was recognized as an effective device till the 18-th century ( Heard, 2011).

            Later on, the flintlock was invented to present a new type of ignition system that allowed producing the flash from the ignition of the powder that moved through the touch hole. As a result, the main charge was ignited and the flintlock was discharged. This type of firearm was cheap and easy to use. It was not dependent on weather conditions. According to experts, “unlike the complicated and expensive wheel lock, this was a weapon which could be issued in large numbers to foot soldiers and cavalry alike” (Heard, 2011, p. 5). This device was very popular in the 17-th century.

            Finally, the rim-fire system was invented in France. The inventor was a French gunsmith Flobert. He designed a device that was effective for high-pressure weapons with a small-caliber. The rim-fire cartridge had a hollow flanged rim, which was crushed by the firing pin and caused the explosion of the priming compound. The propellant which was located inside the cartridge case was ignited. According to experts, the key drawback of this device was “the propensity of the cartridge to discharge if dropped onto its pin” ( Heard, 2011, p.6).

            Further, the centerfire system was developed placing emphasis on the enter fire ammunition which required the only primer cup to be soft enough in order to be crushed by means of the firing pin. The device was invented in 1860.  The major principles of the centerfire system are used in modern types of firearms (Heard, 2011, p. 6).

            Hence, later on, there were innovations like rifling, the revolver, self-loading pistols, and other types of firearms. Since then, firearms innovations were related to changes in frame, such as the use of lightweight aluminum, plastics, and other materials, as well as the invention of “smaller calibers and higher velocity bullets”, the invention of magnum handgun ammunition, and the advancement of gas-operated locking systems (Heard, 2011, p. 10).

Overview of Firearms

            In the USA, the Federal Firearms Act of 1938 is aimed at imposing a federal license requirement on manufacturers, importers, and individuals involved in firearms selling business.  A firearm can be defined as a weapon of any type from which a bullet is discharged. There are several classifications of controlled firearms or weapons, including 

  • Firearms include a wide range of guns (e.g. bolt action and strait pull rifles)
  • Shotguns include smoothbore guns with a barrel of 24 inches in length with a maximum of 2 inches in diameter.  As a rule, shotguns have no magazine and non-detachable magazines with two cartridges.
  • Prohibited weapons include any type of firearms not mentioned above, e.g. rockets, military ammunition and weapons, and machine guns.
  • Air weapons include spring, pre-charged pneumatic, or carbon dioxide weapons. As a rule, this type of firearm is based on the utilization of high-pressure air, which is pressurized by means of a piston in order to push the projectile or bullet down and out of the barrel.

Categories of firearms

            In addition, the above-mentioned categories of firearms are divided into several groups:

  • Semi-Automatic

This type of firearm will load itself from the magazine with dozens of bullets. The key advantage of this weapon is fast reloading and the increased rate of fire.

  • Revolver

This type of firearm is known as a pistol with ammunition in a rotating drum of  5 and 7 shots. Due to the rotation of the cylinder after each shot, the next shot is consistent with the short barrel. This weapon has slow reloading and a reduced rate of fire.

  • Rifle

This type of firearm has a long rifled barrel specially designed to ensure long-range usage in military actions and during hunting. Rifles are presented in the forms of a single shot, self-loading, manual action, bolt action, or automatic. Most rifles are self-loading. One form of the rifle is the shorter barrelled assault rifle specially developed for usage in the military.

  • Sub-Machine Gun

This type of firearm is known as a fast-loading weapon with a high rate of fire. The major forms of sub-machine guns include single shots and automatic. It is used in the military to provide continuous fire.

  • Machine Gun

This type of firearm has a very high rate of fire. Besides, it is fast reloading and has great power to be used in the military.

  • Shotgun

This type of firearm is known as a smooth bored, powerful weapon. It has short-range and low accuracy. It can use different types of ammunition, such as solid slugs and pellets. There are different forms of a shotgun, including single and double-barrelled. 

            Both a firearms examiner and a ballistics expert are focused on the use of laboratory tests to assess crime in firearms-related environments and explain the causes of the use of firearms by criminals. Interpretation of the key findings allows for making evaluations of the circumstances of the criminal act and provides a reliable interpretation of the case in the court of law. Any incident that involves the use of firearms is assessed as common practice for law enforcement personnel and crime scene investigators. The knowledge of the different types of firearms is essential for them. According to experts, the proper interpretation and accurate presentation of firearms evidence in a court of law is the key goal of the study of firearms and ballistics evidence (Heard, 2011; Sinha, 2013).

            Anyway, the use of new forensic technologies, including firearms and ballistics technologies, can help to address the challenges of those wrongly accused. It is possible to identify the failures of the criminal justice system if the faulty forensic evidence, including firearms and ballistics evidence, is properly analyzed and interpreted. The adoption of new techniques in the area of firearms and ballistic evidence examination will revolutionize the ways used to provide crime scene investigations. Currently, due attention is paid to the issues like the degree of certainty and reliability in crime scene investigation (Braga & Pierce, 2004; Heard, 2011; Prior, 2004; Sinha, 2013).

            Furthermore, due to recent and important developments in the science of ballistics and firearms examination, experts effectively use the knowledge of physics, fluid mechanics, practical gun engineering, propellant quality assurance, control, and diagnostic measurement of ballistic evidence in order to achieve success in crime scene reconstruction. These practices help to identify the manner of death of victims from firearms injuries (Braga & Pierce, 2004; Claridge, 2016). According to researchers, “every firearm has individual characteristics, akin to the uniqueness of human fingerprints, that is transferred in the form of microscopic scratches and dents to the projectiles and cartridge casings from it” (Braga & Pierce, 2004, p. 1).

Conclusion

            Thus, it is necessary to conclude that ballistics and firearms are essential aspects of crime scene investigation, which require the use of effective strategies to provide physical evidence and integrate scientific methods and deductive reasoning in the process of crime investigation. As there are some characteristic marks found on the cartridge case and projectile when the firearm is fired, experts in ballistics and firearms identification can distinguish these marks and made relevant conclusions. Due to the proper investigation, it is possible to use a well-developed imaging system that allows storing analyzing, retrieving, and matching high-resolution digital images of cartridge cases. It is crucial to use a computerized imaging system for ballistics identification to achieve success in the crime scene investigating process and ensure an accurate audit of firearms in the region.

References

            ATF, Official Website. (2017).National Integrated Ballistic Information Network (NIBIN

Retrieved from:< https://www.atf.gov/firearms/national-integrated-ballistic-information-network-nibin>

            Braga, A. & Pierce, G. (2004). “Linking Crime Guns: The Impact of Ballistics Imaging Technology on the Productivity of the Boston Police Department’s Ballistics Unit,” Journal of Forensic Sciences, 49 (4): 1-6, https://doi.org/10.1520/JFS2003205.

            Claridge, J. (2016). “Ballistics: The Use and Study of Firearms,” Explore Forensics. Retrieved from:<http://www.exploreforensics.co.uk/ballistics-theuse-and-study-of-firearms.html>

            Heard, B. J. (2011). Handbook of Firearms and Ballistics: Examining and Interpreting Forensic Evidence. John Wiley & Sons.

            Prior, I. (2004). “The ballistics expert at the scene,” in ed. By Horswell, J. The Practice Of Crime Scene Investigation. CRC Press.

            Sinha, J. J. (2013). Forensic Investigation of Unusual Firearms: Ballistic and Medico-Legal Evidence. CRC Press.

            Wecht, C. H. & Rago, J. T. (2005). Forensic Science and Law: Investigative Applications in Criminal, Civil and Family Justice. CRC Press.